TeachWell Wiki
Register
No edit summary
No edit summary
 
(9 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
[[File:Bringing Spaced Repetition to Video Education|thumb|right|335 px]]
+
[[File:Spaced Learning The Future of Universities and Schools|thumb|right|335 px]]
   
 
[[File:BlackhawkLeader - Spaced Repetition|thumb|right|335 px]]
 
[[File:BlackhawkLeader - Spaced Repetition|thumb|right|335 px]]
   
[[File:Spaced Repetition System|thumb|right|335 px]]
+
[[File:Bringing Spaced Repetition to Video Education|thumb|right|335 px]]
   
[[File:How To Learn Anything (And Remember It)|thumb|right|335 px]]
+
[[File:How to improve study results by 50 % using spaced repetition and flashcards !|thumb|right|335 px]]
  +
  +
[[File:6-year-old uses SuperMemo (spaced repetition)|thumb|right|335 px]]
  +
  +
[[File:Key Concepts in Spacing Learning Over Time|thumb|right|335 px]]
  +
  +
[[File:A revolution in education|thumb|right|335 px]]
   
   
 
'''Spaced repetition''' is a [[learning]] technique that incorporates increasing intervals of time between subsequent review of previously learned material in order to exploit the psychological [[spacing effect]]. Alternative names include ''spaced rehearsal'', ''expanding rehearsal'', ''graduated intervals'', ''repetition spacing'', ''repetition scheduling'', ''spaced retrieval'' and ''expanded retrieval''.<ref>"Human Memory: Theory and Practice", Alan D. Baddeley, 1997</ref>
 
'''Spaced repetition''' is a [[learning]] technique that incorporates increasing intervals of time between subsequent review of previously learned material in order to exploit the psychological [[spacing effect]]. Alternative names include ''spaced rehearsal'', ''expanding rehearsal'', ''graduated intervals'', ''repetition spacing'', ''repetition scheduling'', ''spaced retrieval'' and ''expanded retrieval''.<ref>"Human Memory: Theory and Practice", Alan D. Baddeley, 1997</ref>
   
  +
Spaced repetition incorporates the ideas behind the guidelines of: Optimize Motivation, Accommodate All Learning Styles, Limit Course Content, Provide Feedback, Implement Mastery Learning and Assign Frequent Deadlines. Spaced repetition is the guideline which has been shown to provide the greatest improvement in learning retention when memorization of facts is required.
Although the principle is useful in many contexts, spaced repetition is commonly applied in contexts in which a learner must learn a large number of items and retain them indefinitely in memory. It is therefore well suited to subjects requiring the memorization of a large nymber of new definitions or facts such as the subjects of foreign language, history and anatomy.
 
   
 
Although the principle is useful in many contexts, spaced repetition is commonly applied in contexts in which a learner must learn a large number of items and retain them indefinitely in memory. It is therefore well suited to subjects requiring the memorization of a large nymber of new definitions or facts such as the subjects of foreign language, history and anatomy.
[[File:Try_Practice_Demonstrate_Spaced_Repetition.jpg|right]]
 
 
==Research and applications==
 
==Research and applications==
   
Line 55: Line 61:
   
 
|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> It is used in the [[Pimsleur language learning system]] and is particularly suited to programmed audio instruction due to the very short times (measured in seconds or minutes) between the first few repetitions, as compared to other forms of spaced repetition which may not require such precise timings.
 
|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> It is used in the [[Pimsleur language learning system]] and is particularly suited to programmed audio instruction due to the very short times (measured in seconds or minutes) between the first few repetitions, as compared to other forms of spaced repetition which may not require such precise timings.
  +
 
[[File:Try_Practice_Demonstrate_Spaced_Repetition.jpg|right]]
   
 
The intervals published in Pimsleur's paper were: 5 seconds, 25 seconds, 2 minutes, 10 minutes, 1 hour, 5 hours, 1 day, 5 days, 25 days, 4 months, and 2 years.
 
The intervals published in Pimsleur's paper were: 5 seconds, 25 seconds, 2 minutes, 10 minutes, 1 hour, 5 hours, 1 day, 5 days, 25 days, 4 months, and 2 years.

Latest revision as of 00:20, 28 September 2014

Spaced_Learning_The_Future_of_Universities_and_Schools

Spaced Learning The Future of Universities and Schools

BlackhawkLeader_-_Spaced_Repetition

BlackhawkLeader - Spaced Repetition

Bringing_Spaced_Repetition_to_Video_Education

Bringing Spaced Repetition to Video Education

How_to_improve_study_results_by_50_%_using_spaced_repetition_and_flashcards_!

How to improve study results by 50 % using spaced repetition and flashcards !

6-year-old_uses_SuperMemo_(spaced_repetition)

6-year-old uses SuperMemo (spaced repetition)

Key_Concepts_in_Spacing_Learning_Over_Time

Key Concepts in Spacing Learning Over Time

A_revolution_in_education

A revolution in education


Spaced repetition is a learning technique that incorporates increasing intervals of time between subsequent review of previously learned material in order to exploit the psychological spacing effect. Alternative names include spaced rehearsal, expanding rehearsal, graduated intervals, repetition spacing, repetition scheduling, spaced retrieval and expanded retrieval.[1]

Spaced repetition incorporates the ideas behind the guidelines of: Optimize Motivation, Accommodate All Learning Styles, Limit Course Content, Provide Feedback, Implement Mastery Learning and Assign Frequent Deadlines. Spaced repetition is the guideline which has been shown to provide the greatest improvement in learning retention when memorization of facts is required.

Although the principle is useful in many contexts, spaced repetition is commonly applied in contexts in which a learner must learn a large number of items and retain them indefinitely in memory. It is therefore well suited to subjects requiring the memorization of a large nymber of new definitions or facts such as the subjects of foreign language, history and anatomy.

Research and applications[]

The notion that spaced repetition could be used for improving learning was firstTemplate:Citation needed proposed in the book Psychology of Study by Prof. C. A. Mace in 1932. In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa learning science facts.[2] Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists, including Melton[3] and Landauer & Bjork,[4] explored manipulation of repetition timing as a means to improve recall. Around the same time, Pimsleur language courses pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973 Sebastian Leitner devised his "Leitner system", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on flashcards.

With the increase in access to personal computers in the 1980s, spaced repetition began to be implemented with computer-assisted language learning software-based solutions,[5] enabling automated scheduling and statistic gathering, scaling to thousands of cards scheduled individually.Template:POV-statementTemplate:Cn To enable the user to reach a target level of achievement (e.g. 90% of all material correctly recalled at any given time point), the software adjusts the repetition spacing interval. Material that is hard appears more often and material that is easy less often, with difficulty defined according to the ease with which the user is able to produce a correct response.

There are several families of algorithms for scheduling spaced repetition:

  • Leitner system: 5 stages and an arbitrary number of stages
  • SM-family of algorithms (SuperMemo): SM-0 (a paper implementation) to SM-15 (in SuperMemo 15)

Some have theorized that the precise length of intervals does not have a great impact on algorithm effectiveness,  although it has been suggested by others that the interval (expanded vs. fixed interval, etc.) is quite important; the experimental data regarding this point are mixed.

Pimsleur's graduated-interval recall[]

Graduated-interval recall is a type of spaced repetition published by Paul Pimsleur in 1967.[6] It is used in the Pimsleur language learning system and is particularly suited to programmed audio instruction due to the very short times (measured in seconds or minutes) between the first few repetitions, as compared to other forms of spaced repetition which may not require such precise timings.

Try Practice Demonstrate Spaced Repetition

The intervals published in Pimsleur's paper were: 5 seconds, 25 seconds, 2 minutes, 10 minutes, 1 hour, 5 hours, 1 day, 5 days, 25 days, 4 months, and 2 years.

By timing a Pimsleur language program with a stopwatch,Template:Or it is possible to verify that the intervals are not followed exactly but have upper and lower bounds. A similar principle (graduated intervals with upper and lower bounds) is used in at least one open source software project (Gradint) to schedule audio-only lessons. (Another open source project, PimSched, keeps Pimsleur's intervals rigidly, without adding upper or lower bounds. PimSched currently uses only the first 4 intervals.)

Software[]

Most spaced repetition software (SRS) programs are modeled after the manual style of learning with flashcards: items to memorize are entered into the program as question-answer pairs. When a pair is due to be reviewed, the question is displayed on screen, and the user must attempt to answer. After answering, the user manually reveals the answer and then tells the program (subjectively) how difficult answering was. The program schedules pairs based on spaced repetition algorithms. Without a program, the user has to schedule flashcards; this is time-intensive and limits users to simple algorithms like the Leitner system.

Further refinements with regard to software:

  • Questions and/or answers can be a sound-file to train recognition of spoken words.
  • Automatic generation of pairs (e.g. for vocabulary, it is useful to generate three question-pairs: written foreign word, its pronunciation and its meaning), but data only has to be entered once.
  • Additional information retrieved automatically is available, such as example sentences containing a word.
  • Opportunities to combine spaced repetition with online community functions, e.g. sharing courses.

Further reading[]

  • Caple, C. (1996). "The Effects of Spaced Practice and Spaced Review on Recall and Retention Using Computer Assisted Instruction". Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Education, North Carolina State University.[1]
  • de Boer, V. (2003, August). "Optimal Learning and the Spacing Effect: Theory, Application and Experiments based on the Memory Chain Model". Artificial Intelligence Master's Thesis for Computational Psychology, University of Amsterdam.[2]
  • Dempster, F. N. (1988). "The Spacing Effect: A Case Study in the Failure to Apply the Results of Psychological Research". American Psychologist, 43(8), 627-634.
  • Greene R. L. (2008). Repetition and spacing effects. In Roediger H. L. III (Ed.), Learning and memory: A comprehensive reference. Vol. 2: Cognitive psychology of memory (pp. 65–78). Oxford: Elsevier.
  • Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2007). "Expanding Retrieval Practice Promotes Short-Term Retention, but Equally Spaced Retrieval Enhances Long-Term Retention". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, * Memory, and Cognition, 33(4), 704-719.[3]
  • Template:Cite journal
  • Pavlik, P. I. (2005). The Microeconomics of Learning: Optimizing Paired-Associate Memory. PhD, Carnegie Mellon.
  • Template:Cite journal
  • Template:Cite web — software-neutral advice on making flashcards for spaced repetition.



References[]

  1. Jump up^ "Human Memory: Theory and Practice", Alan D. Baddeley, 1997
  1. Jump up^ Spitzer, H. F. (1939). Studies in retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, 641–657.
  1. Jump up^ Melton, A. W. (1970). The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 596–606.
  1. Jump up^ Landauer, T. K., & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning. In M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp. 625–632). London: Academic Press.
  1. Jump up^ See #Software
  1. Jump up^ Cull, W. L. (2000). Untangling the benefits of multiple study opportunities and repeated testing for cued recall. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 215–235.
  1. Jump up^ Chapter 6:Is Expanded Retrieval Practice a Superior Form of Spaced Retrieval?, A Critical Review of the Extant Literature, DAVID A. BALOTA, JANET M DUCHEK, and JESSICA M. LOGAN
  1. Jump up^ Pimsleur, Paul (February 1967). "A Memory Schedule". The Modern Language Journal (Blackwell Publishing) 51 (2): 73–75. doi:10.2307/321812. JSTOR 321812
  1. "Human Memory: Theory and Practice", Alan D. Baddeley, 1997
  2. Spitzer, H. F. (1939). Studies in retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, 641–657.
  3. Melton, A. W. (1970). The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 596–606.
  4. Landauer, T. K., & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning. In M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp. 625–632). London: Academic Press.
  5. See #Software
  6. Template:Cite journal